NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

Walden University NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience– Step-By-Step Guide

This guide will demonstrate how to complete the Walden University NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience assignment based on general principles of academic writing. Here, we will show you the A, B, Cs of completing an academic paper, irrespective of the instructions. After guiding you through what to do, the guide will leave one or two sample essays at the end to highlight the various sections discussed below.

How to Research and Prepare for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

Whether one passes or fails an academic assignment such as the Walden University NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience depends on the preparation done beforehand. The first thing to do once you receive an assignment is to quickly skim through the requirements. Once that is done, start going through the instructions one by one to clearly understand what the instructor wants. The most important thing here is to understand the required format—whether it is APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.

After understanding the requirements of the paper, the next phase is to gather relevant materials. The first place to start the research process is the weekly resources. Go through the resources provided in the instructions to determine which ones fit the assignment. After reviewing the provided resources, use the university library to search for additional resources. After gathering sufficient and necessary resources, you are now ready to start drafting your paper.

How to Write the Introduction for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

The introduction for the Walden University NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience is where you tell the instructor what your paper will encompass. In three to four statements, highlight the important points that will form the basis of your paper. Here, you can include statistics to show the importance of the topic you will be discussing. At the end of the introduction, write a clear purpose statement outlining what exactly will be contained in the paper. This statement will start with “The purpose of this paper…” and then proceed to outline the various sections of the instructions.

How to Write the Body for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

After the introduction, move into the main part of the NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience assignment, which is the body. Given that the paper you will be writing is not experimental, the way you organize the headings and subheadings of your paper is critically important. In some cases, you might have to use more subheadings to properly organize the assignment. The organization will depend on the rubric provided. Carefully examine the rubric, as it will contain all the detailed requirements of the assignment. Sometimes, the rubric will have information that the normal instructions lack.

Another important factor to consider at this point is how to do citations. In-text citations are fundamental as they support the arguments and points you make in the paper. At this point, the resources gathered at the beginning will come in handy. Integrating the ideas of the authors with your own will ensure that you produce a comprehensive paper. Also, follow the given citation format. In most cases, APA 7 is the preferred format for nursing assignments.

How to Write the Conclusion for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

After completing the main sections, write the conclusion of your paper. The conclusion is a summary of the main points you made in your paper. However, you need to rewrite the points and not simply copy and paste them. By restating the points from each subheading, you will provide a nuanced overview of the assignment to the reader.

How to Format the References List for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

The very last part of your paper involves listing the sources used in your paper. These sources should be listed in alphabetical order and double-spaced. Additionally, use a hanging indent for each source that appears in this list. Lastly, only the sources cited within the body of the paper should appear here.

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Sample Answer for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

Neuroscience and Prescription 

Agonists and antagonists are critical players in pharmacology and, generally, in the human body. Agonist binds to a receptor, thus altering its state and producing an appropriate response (Patinote et al.,2020). They are considered the prime movers responsible for creating a specific movement. On the other hand, the antagonists are ligands that prevent the agonist from binding to a receptor, preventing its effects (Patinote et al.,2020). They do not by themselves contain pharmacological actions that are mediated by the receptors. Generally, this means that the agonists and antagonists act in different directions, whereby the agonists introduce an action while the antagonist opposes it. The agonist works with the muscles while the antagonists work against them. Furthermore, the agonist alters the functionality of the activities of the receptors, while the antagonists do not alter the activities of the receptors despite their binding to the receptor. 

            Moreover, the partial agonists cannot produce the maximal response of the tissue can regardless of whether they have the same number of receptors as full agonists. Therefore, a certain level of binding is where the partial agonist can bind the receptors without consequently producing additional effects (Patinote et al.,2020). Nevertheless, doing so may hinder the activities of other agonists, thus being seen as antagonists. Therefore, this mixture of actions is referred to as a partial agonist. Moreover, an inverse agonist binds to a receptor and produces a response different from that of the corresponding agonist (Patinote et al.,2020). When the agonist increases the activity mediated by a receptor, the inverse agonist decreases it. 

             The actions of G couple proteins and the ion-gated channels share similarities and differences. They are both considered transmembrane us proteins with ligand binding sites and have an effect on the cytoplasmic (Hu et al.,2021). In addition, they both, to some extent, react to the ligand, where they change their shape. The differences are that the G Protein receptors have a single polypeptide tied over the membrane. On the other hand, the ion channel has pores open and close when ligand binding occurs. Another difference is that the G protein-coupled receptors often interact highly with various proteins for an intracellular response (Hu et al.,2021). On the other hand, ion channels help regulate the flow of irons. 

            The role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacologic action in various ways. The epigenetic regulation of the gene of activities of the gene is critical in the maintenance of normal phenotypic cell activities (Topper et al.,2020). It is also essential in developing diseases such as Alzheimer’s and cancer. 

            The information gained has helped me gain valuable insights and significantly impacted how one may prescribe medication to their patients. Understanding the epigenetics affected by human diseases helps define pharmacology that may be used to control the mechanism (Topper et al.,2020). As a result, it may help one make the right judgments regarding decisions related to the mediation of patients with mental health issues. The information gained helps link neurobiology to the diagnosis of mental health to help identify the effective medication to assist in the treatment of the disease. For example, using the information on neuroscience, a professional psychiatrist can relate and make an informed diagnosis, thus prescribing the best mediation based on informed judgments. 

Also Read:

Neurobiology and Medication Adherence Concepts

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Assessing and Treating Patients With Bipolar Disorder

Assessing and Treating Patients With Anxiety Disorders

Treatment for a Patient With a Common Condition

Study Guide for Medication Treatment Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychosis Disorders

WEEK 8 Short Answer Assessment

Assessing and Treating Patients With Sleep Wake Disorders

Assessing and Treating Patients With ADHD

Psychopharmacologic Approaches to Treatment of Psychopathology

Assessing and Treating Patients With Impulsivity, Compulsivity, and Addiction

References 

Hu, Y., Chen, M., Wang, M., & Li, X. (2021). Flow-mediated vasodilation through mechanosensitive G protein-coupled receptors in endothelial cells. Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2020.12.010Links to an external site. 

Patinote, C., Karroum, N. B., Moarbess, G., Cirnat, N., Kassab, I., Bonnet, P. A., & Deleuze-Masquéfa, C. (2020). Agonist and antagonist ligands of toll-like receptors 7 and 8: Ingenious tools for therapeutic purposes. European journal of medicinal chemistry, 193, 112238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112238Links to an external site. 

Topper, M. J., Vaz, M., Marrone, K. A., Brahmer, J. R., & Baylin, S. B. (2020). The emerging role of epigenetic therapeutics in immuno-oncology. Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology, 17(2), 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41571-019-0266-5Links to an external site. 

Sample Answer 2 for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the human central nervous system to understand the brain’s dysfunction that can lead to disease, mental disorders, and physical impairment (Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019). The complex design of a neuron is the basic understanding of communication by sending impulses to other body organs. The brain controls human behavior and the functions of body organs. The anatomy and physiology of the brain help understand the part of the brain affected by mental illness. For example, poor concentration and cognitive skills dysfunction is the forebrain pathology. Additionally, one can understand the mode of action of psychopharmacology. For example, antidepressants may function by inhibiting the serotonin or epinephrine receptors.  

An Agonist-To-Antagonist Spectrum of Action and How Partial and Inverse Agonists Influence Psychopharmacologic 

An antagonist binds at the receptors by blocking any event of an agonist, hence, blocking the biological response. For example, naloxone is a competitive opioid antagonist and has no effects with opioid co-administration (Gicquelais, et al, 2019). An agonist binds to a receptor causing activation of the receptor, hence, the biological response. A partial agonist activates the receptors partially with lesser effect on the brain. For example, buprenorphine is a partial agonist, and therefore, an antagonist may block its opioid function without activating its receptors. An inverse receptor binds with constitutively active receptors and inhibits receptor activity by exerting opposite pharmacological effects that suppress spontaneous receptor signaling. 

Comparison between Actions of G Couple Proteins and Ion Gated Channels 

G coupled proteins GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that convert extracellular responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, olfaction, and taste signals. The GPCRs work by binding to the hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors to initiate a cellular response. The three types of G-couple receptors are alpha, beta, and gamma, in which the ligands bind and activate (Yudin & Rohacs 2019). Ion gated channels are integral membrane proteins of excitable cells that allow a flux of ions to pass only under defined circumstances. These channels are voltage-gated sodium channel neurons and ligand-dated acetylcholine receptors of the cholinergic synapses. The ion gated channel pull and bonds to the agonist changing the protein while g coupled proteins are used by the cells to convert intracellular signals into responses. 

The Role of Epigenetics In the Pharmacologic Action 

Epigenetics regulate gene activity by switching off the gene activity or activating the gene activity. Epigenetics plays a role in the phenotypic activity of the cell in diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. Epigenetics modify gene expressions after drug administration to counteract the disease states in humans. Epigenetics proves its effectiveness in treating psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders to its ability to modify gene expressions. 

The Significance of the Information to Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner 

A psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner should have basic knowledge of the concepts of foundational neuroscience. Understanding the function of agonists, inverse and partial agonists, and antagonists prevent co-administration of drugs that agonize and antagonize the same receptors. For example, in treating a patient with a depressive mood disorder, prescribing antipsychotics such as fluphenazine worsens the depressive mood because it antagonizes the dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors depressing the release of the hypothalamic hormone.   

References 

Gicquelais, R. E., Bohnert, A. S., Thomas, L., & Foxman, B. (2020). Opioid agonist and antagonist use and the gut microbiota: associations among people in addiction treatment. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76570-9 

Karmarkar, U. R., & Plassmann, H. (2019). Consumer neuroscience: Past, present, and future. Organizational Research Methods, 22(1), 174-195. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1094428117730598

Yudin, Y., & Rohacs, T. (2019). The G‐protein‐biased agents PZM21 and TRV130 are partial agonists of μ‐opioid receptor‐mediated signalling to ion channels. British journal of pharmacology, 176(17), 3110-3125. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.14702 

Sample Answer 3 for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

I really enjoyed reading your article, it was very informative. However, in addition to your points about the agonist-antagonist spectrum, I will like to share additional insight I found interesting too. 

According to Berg and Clarke (2018), Agonists have intrinsic efficacy (the ability to increase the activity of a receptor), and inverse agonists are said to have negative intrinsic efficacy (the ability to decrease the activity of a receptor). Just as agonist intrinsic efficacy for a receptor varies with the structure of the agonist (resulting in strong agonists and weaker [partial] agonists), inverse agonists also have different degrees of negative intrinsic efficacy, resulting in strong and weak (partial) inverse agonists. 

Inverse agonists are ligands that selectively bind to the inactive state of the receptor (Kenakin, 2017). If any receptor happens to be in an active state spontaneously, then an inverse agonist will reverse the resultant constitutive activity. However, the main pharmacological effect of inverse agonists is receptor antagonism, that is, inverse agonists will block the effect of agonists and the effect on constitutive activity is only relevant if the system is spontaneously active (Kenakin, 2017). There is a property of inverse agonists that may be therapeutically relevant in nonconstitutively active systems (Kenakin, 2017). 

References 

Berg, K. A., & Clarke, W. P. (2018). Making sense of pharmacology: Inverse agonism and functional selectivity. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology, 21(10), 962–977. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyy071 

Kenakin, T. P. (2017). Pharmacology in Drug Discovery and Development (Second Edition). ScienceDirect. Retrieved June 10, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803752-2.00004-1

Sample Answer 4 for NURS 6630 Foundational Neuroscience

Pharmacological agents produce both agonist and antagonist actions in different receptors in the human body. The agonist and antagonist actions of pharmacological agents work against one another. The agonists combine with the receptor to produce an action in the body. On the other hand, antagonist action hinders or opposes the action by a receptor, thereby, leading to a failure of an occurrence of an event. The effect of agonists is attributed to the combination it has with compounds or chemical substances to promote the desired action while that of antagonist entails the combination with chemicals or blockage of neurotransmitters to cause interference with action. Partial and inverse agonists have an effect on the efficacy of psychopharmacological agents. Partial agonists bind to a specific receptor to produce partial efficacy at that receptor that is relative to the effect of full agonist. The partial enhancement of the actions of the receptor results in a net decline in the activation of the receptor hence, average activity of the receptor in producing the desired action. Inverse agonists work by binding to a receptor as an antagonist to produce an action that is opposite to that of the agonist (Demler, 2019). Inverse agonists mimic the agonist activity of the receptors, hence, the desired therapeutic activity of psychopharmacological agents.

G-couple proteins and ion-gated channels are the mechanisms in which cells communicate to produce actions. They comprise of the cell-surface receptors that play the roles of signal transfer in multicellular organisms. The two however differ in a number of aspects. Ion-gated channels have receptors that bind to a ligand to cause opening of channels via membranes to allow the passage of specific ions. Ion-gated channels do not allow the passage of fatty acids and amino acids because they are hydrophobic in nature. Ion-gated channels therefore mediate rapid, post-synaptic responses. G-proteins channels on the other hand have receptors that bind and active G-protein on cell membranes. The activation of G-proteins results in cyclic series that cause entry of proteins such as amino acids and fatty acids into the cell to produce action (Hood & Khan, 2020). The G-proteins therefore mediate slow post-synaptic responses.

Epigenetics has a role in pharmacologic actions of drugs. Firstly, changes in the expression of enzymes that metabolize drugs may affect the action as well as metabolism of a drug. For example, changes in enzymes due to aspects such as DNA methylation affects the metabolism of drugs, leading to their altered effectiveness. The addition of methyl group to the cytosine pyrimidine ring causes silencing of transcription, thereby, hindering the binding of co-activators and transcription factors that are needed for metabolism and action of drugs. The second influence of epigenetics is the genetic variations in the transporters of drugs. A genetic change in the transporters of drugs such as ATP binding cassette transporters and solute carrier transporter affect the binding and action of pharmacological agents (Castelo-Branco & Jeronimo, 2020).

The above information will affect my prescribing of medications to patients. For instance, it will translate into my understanding of the disease process and the targets of the medications that I prescribe to the patients. The implication of the information also entails the need for comprehensive patient assessment to identify any relevant patient history that may affect the effectiveness of the prescribed medications. I should also be aware of the contraindications of specific medications to patients with history of allergies or comorbid conditions (Hood & Khan, 2020). Therefore, the information will inform my safe prescribing in my professional role as an advanced practice nurse.

References

Castelo-Branco, P., & Jeronimo, C. (2020). Histone Modifications in Therapy. Elsevier Science.

Demler, T. L. (2019). Pharmacotherapeutics for Advanced Nursing Practice, Revised Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Hood, P., & Khan, E. (2020). Understanding Pharmacology in Nursing Practice. Springer Nature.

NURS 6630 Week 1 Ion Channels and G Proteins Sample

Ion channels and G proteins play crucial roles in cellular signal transduction, but they function in distinct ways. 

Ion Channels: These are protein structures embedded in cell membranes that allow ions (like sodium, potassium, and calcium) to pass in and out of the cell. Their primary role in signal transduction is to rapidly alter the electrical state of the cell, which can initiate other cellular processes. Medications that target ion channels often aim to modify nerve signal transmission or muscle contraction. Examples include local anesthetics that block sodium channels and drugs that treat irregular heartbeats by affecting calcium or potassium channels. 

Supportive Evidence:  

Tolperisone, a muscle relaxant known for its minimal side effects, has been shown to impact ion channels, which are also targeted by leading neuropathic pain treatments. The objective of the study was to investigate tolperisone’s pain-relieving effectiveness in rats with neuropathic pain caused by partial ligation of the sciatic nerve, including its underlying mechanisms. In experiments, a single oral dose of tolperisone reversed both the reduced paw pressure threshold and the increased glutamate levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of rats with neuropathy. These results were similar to those observed with pregabalin, a primary treatment for neuropathy. Additionally, tolperisone primarily blocks the release of glutamate from rat brain synaptosomes by inhibiting voltage-dependent sodium channels, with potential effects on calcium channels at higher doses (Lakatos et al, 2022). 

G Proteins: Short for guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, these act as molecular switches inside cells. When activated by receptors on the cell surface (like hormone or neurotransmitter receptors), G proteins initiate a cascade of further signaling events inside the cell, affecting processes like enzyme activation, ion channel regulation, and changes in gene expression. Medications targeting G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are immensely varied, including many drugs that affect cardiovascular, respiratory, and psychological processes by influencing how cells respond to external signals. 

Supportive Evidence:  

A well-known example of a medication that targets G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is propranolol, a beta-blocker used primarily for cardiovascular conditions. Propranolol acts by binding to beta-adrenergic receptors, which are a type of GPCR. When these receptors are stimulated by adrenaline (epinephrine), they activate G proteins within the cell. These G proteins then trigger a series of signaling pathways that can increase heart rate and blood pressure. 

Propranolol blocks these receptors, preventing adrenaline from binding to them and thereby inhibiting the activation of the associated G proteins. This leads to a decrease in heart rate and blood pressure, making propranolol effective in treating conditions such as hypertension, angina, and certain types of arrhythmias. This action also illustrates the broader role of GPCRs and their associated G proteins in mediating the body’s response to various external signals, impacting a range of physiological processes (Ali et al, 2013). 

While ion channels directly change the cell’s ion balance and electrical potential, G proteins indirectly initiate various signaling pathways that alter cellular activity over a longer duration. 

Response to the Patient Question: 

It’s understandable to worry about inheriting mental health conditions, especially if a close family member is affected. Genetics can play a role in the risk of developing mental illnesses, but they are just one part of a complex picture that includes environmental factors, lifestyle, and personal experiences. 

Having similar genes to your grandmother does mean you might have a higher genetic predisposition to certain conditions, but it does not guarantee that you will develop the same mental illness. Mental health is influenced by a multitude of factors, and not everyone with a genetic risk develops the condition. 

If this is a concern for you, discussing it with a healthcare professional could provide personalized insights and guidance. They could offer screening, discuss preventive strategies, and help monitor any symptoms in a supportive environment. 

Supportive Evidence: 

Psychiatric disorders exhibit significant complexity and variability, with symptoms, genetic factors, and brain imaging features often overlapping. Leveraging a dimensional approach to mental health, previous research has identified genetic commonalities between psychiatric disorders, general mental health in the population, and brain functional connectivity. In this study, involving 30,701 participants aged 45–82 from the UK Biobank, we explored genetic links between self-reported mental health and brain network functionality as measured by resting-state fMRI. Using the Multivariate Omnibus Statistical Test, we identified 10 genetic loci linked to mental health symptoms at the population level. Additionally, a conjunctional FDR approach pinpointed 23 genetic variants common between these mental health symptoms and fMRI-based measures of brain network activity. Functional annotation highlighted genes that influence brain structure and function, particularly those affecting synaptic processes like axonal growth (for example, NGFR and RHOA). These results further corroborate the genetic association between brain function and mental health traits across the population (Roelfs et al, 2023). 

References 

Ali, I., Hussain, A., & Saleem, K. (2013). DETERMINATION OF STEREO-SELECTIVE BINDINGS OF RACEMIC PROPRANOLOL WITH β 2 -AD-GPCR IN HUMAN PLASMA. Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies, 36(6), 792–806. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826076.2012.673215Links to an external site. 

Lakatos, P. P., Karádi, D. Á., Galambos, A. R., Essmat, N., Király, K., Laufer, R., Geda, O., Zádori, Z. S., Tábi, T., Al-Khrasani, M., & Szökő, É. (2022). The Acute Antiallodynic Effect of Tolperisone in Rat Neuropathic Pain and Evaluation of Its Mechanism of Action. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(17), 9564. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23179564Links to an external site.Links to an external site. 

Roelfs, D., Frei, O., van der Meer, D., Tissink, E., Shadrin, A., Alnaes, D., Andreassen, O. A., Westlye, L. T., & Kaufmann, T. (2023). Shared genetic architecture between mental health and the brain functional connectome in the UK Biobank. BMC Psychiatry, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04905-7