Types of Fallacies with Examples

1.       The Planning Fallacy

A planning fallacy refers to a situation where we underestimate how long it will take us to complete a task. Before beginning any task, you have to plan and set a certain time to complete it. If we have completed similar tasks before, then we know the amount of time we need to set apart.

However, sometimes, we believe that we can complete the task in a shorter span. These overly high expectations cause us to make unrealistic plans that are bound to fail. By the end of the task, we have wasted time, money, and energy on a task we would’ve done comfortably with the right plan. This is what we call a planning fallacy.

Below is an example of a planning fallacy,

You are preparing to apply for your dream graduate school. This kind of application typically takes around eight months to complete. You decide to begin the application process just three months from the start of the school year. You are confident that you will be able to finish the project on time. 

However, as the days go by, you start to get overwhelmed, and you realize that you need to allocate more time for each stage of the application process. On top of that, you develop a cold, which makes you less productive. With the deadline fast approaching, you rush to finish the project, and you realize that you miscalculated the time and effort needed for this project. This may affect your results.

The planning fallacy is the cause of several issues. These include missed deadlines, incomplete tasks, rushed and under-researched assignments, and failed tests. It also causes a lot of frustration and stress to an individual.

2.       Appeal to Emotion Fallacy

The appeal to emotion fallacy is when a person fails to provide evidence and instead decides to convince the other party by evoking their emotions.

In this kind of fallacy, people tend to accept a claim as the truth because they have judged it with their feelings. They tend to ignore facts and logical reasoning and focus on irrelevant factors in the case.

Here’s an example of the appeal to emotion fallacy,

  You are trying to convince your parents to let you go out to a party with your friends. ‘’Can I go to the party with my friends? I haven’t left the house in so long and I have done everything you have asked me to do. Everybody is going, and it’s going to make me so sad if I don’t. I never go anywhere with them.’’

The appeal to emotion fallacy is also known as the argument of emotion, argument from passion, or argumentum de passiones. It’s commonly found in law and politics.

3.       Appeal to Pity Fallacy

The appeal to pity fallacy is when a person tries to convince someone of something by evoking feelings of pity or guilt. One tries to play with people’s feelings instead of providing factual information. This is a manipulative tactic, as these feelings are not relevant to the point being made. For example,

‘’Could you please give me a replacement midterm paper? I really had no idea the test was yesterday. My parents will be so angry if they find out I missed a test.’’

The appeal to pity fallacy is also known as argument form pity or argumentum ad misericordiam. It’s mostly found in law, marketing, and political campaigns.

4.       The Either-or Fallacy

The either-or fallacy refers to a situation where a person presents two sides of an argument when there are actually more. It’s a manipulative method used to force others into accepting the speaker’s view. Most people who use this kind of thinking are politicians, marketers, and everyday conversationalists. For example,

               ‘’You can either go with me tonight or sit at home and be bored all night’’.

This type of fallacy is also called a false dilemma fallacy, false binary, and false dichotomy.

5.       False Cause Fallacy

A false cause fallacy is when a person incorrectly assumes that there is a causal relationship between two things or events. This is a false conclusion because the relationship may not exist, or there is insufficient evidence to support it. An example of this fallacy is,

 ‘’Every time I wear a sweater, it gets cold. It’s evident that if I leave it, there will be sunshine!’’

This type of thinking leads to superstitious beliefs about various events and phenomena. It also gives one a poor understanding of reality.

6.       Ad-Populum Fallacy

This fallacy refers to thinking that something is true simply because it’s what most people believe in; if many people believe it’s true then it must be true. Below is an example,

You go to the cinema with your friend. You are big fans of romantic comedy and there is one showing. However, the attendant convinces you to watch a Sci-Fi film because that is what  everyone else is watching.

Ad-populum fallacies are often used when there is no real evidence to back up a claim. They are also referred to as appeals to popularity and bandwagon fallacies.

7.       Appeal to Authority Fallacy

Appeal to authority fallacy occurs when a person uses an expert’s opinion to back up their argument. This is regardless of whether it’s right or wrong. People believe experts even though they might not be qualified to make reliable claims about a topic. For example,

‘’My favorite actor who starred in a movie about a virus, said in an interview that zombies are real and they have their own universe. So, I think it’s true!’’

Politicians and marketers use this fallacy as a technique to persuade people into believing their claims.

8.       False Dilemma Fallacy

This fallacy involves presenting a limited number of options and insinuating that they are the only ones available. It forces people to choose between two extremes despite there being other possibilities.

               Either you support this candidate, or you want our country to continue dwindling.

The false dilemma fallacy is common and can also be referred to as the either-or fallacy.